Nancy Sommer
Elementary School Teacher
Steamboat Springs, Colorado
89007
AUDIENCE: Upper elementary students, but adaptable at all levels.
RATIONALE:
TIME: This could be an open-ended unit. With the adult bibliography, as well as the children's book list, the amount of involvement would be up to the classroom educator and the response from the students involved.
1780'S BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
When the American colonists declared their independence from England in 1776, the United States Declaration of Independence echoed the famous phrase that "all men are created equal and are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights." However, women possessed few rights and had almost no independence. The American colonists based their claims for independence chiefly on common law principles that they had brought with them from England. These common law principles thus became a driving force behind the writing of the Declaration of Independence.
And what about the women under common law? Women couldn't own property or sign wills or contracts without the consent of their husbands. Women could not be heirs. They could not be accorded full property rights of their deceased husbands as heads of the household. Men left their homes and property to their sons, and widows could share with the sons. By marriage, the husband and wife were one person in law. That is, the very being or legal existence of women was suspended during marriage. Legally speaking, women died on their wedding day.(1) The woman was covered or veiled by the name and authority of her husband. She could not sue or be made to testify against herself. She could not sue for divorce, except in extremely unusual circumstances. Women ran away instead of getting divorced. If a woman left her husband, she lost all right to her children. Her husband had a right to her property, earned or inherited. Women could not vote.
Her husband represented her at the polls and could even be made responsible for criminal acts committed by her in his presence. Women could not go to college, practice law, theology or medicine. A girl's education stopped after grammar school. "They needed little knowledge to 'keep the pot boiling'".(2)
When the colonists first came to the New World, they had to survive. Women and children, along with men, helped to establish the new colonies. The common laws of England weren't closely enforced because the women needed more rights in order to be productive in the new land. As a situation arose, it was judged in the courts on the basis of what was considered reasonable in terms of prevailing customs and usage. Common law was modified to fit these New World conditions. The relative scarcity of women, in addition to the absence of a professional class of lawyers to uphold the strict common laws, led to a greater leniency of laws towards women. When the men became sick or died, women had no choice but to take over the land and work. These colonial women had the unwritten rights to sue, conduct business, be sued, enter into contracts, and sell real estate in the absence of their husbands. Throughout colonial times, even unmarried women with enough property were able to vote on local issues. Without formal political rights, however, colonial women were obviously quite limited in exercising their political influence and fulfilled any civic aspiration through their husband or other males.
There were fewer sexual stereotypes in the 17th and 18th century than there was in the 19th century.(3) Women were found in these roles not because the colonial period was less patriarchal, but because they were working with their husbands or in the absence of their husbands. Naturally as there were more and more women, this need declined, and with it, women's legal and socio-economic standing.(4)
The colonists were so carried away by the injustices of taxation without representation that they thought the new constitution should logically ensure the equal rights of women so that they would be represented, too.(5) In 1776, both male and female, hoped that the position of American women would continue to improve. Unfortunately, it did not.(6) The post-Revolution period was one of declining status for women, brought about either by the increase of citizenship rights for men without an equivalent grant to women, or by the actual cutting down on or the elimination of rights which colonial women had exercised. Law practices began to prevail and with that, a closer application of the more conservative aspects of English common law. Bar association and professional training for lawyers were evident before the Revolution, but they increased in their influence, contributing to the even greater legal conservatism after 1776. There was an increasing reliance on the Blackstone's Commentaries of Common Law, and thus, a declining legal status for women.(7)
QUOTATIONS FROM THIS ERA:
Abigail Adams to her husband John, the future 2nd president of the United States: "Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands. Remember that all men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care is not paid to the ladies, we are determined to form a rebellion and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have had no choice or representation."(8)
In 1789, one of every four persons was a Negro slave out of 4 million people. One third of these slaves were women.(9) Angela Grimke spoke, "What then can a woman do for the slave when she herself is under the feet of man and shamed into silence." Phyllis Wheatley (1753-1784) was a slave who was taught to read
and write. Most women slaves had no rights at all. They were property and had no right to an education.
Ben Franklin declared, "If women were intellectually unequal to me, it was only because of the limits placed on them by tradition and by inferior education."(10)
Frances (Franny) Wright (1795-1852) urged women to think logically and defend their beliefs with evidence for advancing the cause of American women.
Molly Pitcher (Mary Ludwig Hays) was carrying pitchers of drinking water to the American artillery men, one of whom was her husband, while they were fighting the Battle of Monmouth on June 28, 1778. When her husband fell in battle, she replaced him at the cannon. Before that she had only cooked and washed for the soldiers in the camp. "One hour of glory in a life of heavy cleaning.'"(11)
The struggle for women's rights is often dated from 1792 when Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women. She attracted the notion that women existed only to please men and asserted the need for change in the status of women.
Emma Hart Willard (1787-1870) was refused admission to Middlebury College because she was woman. She disagreed with the commonly held view that a woman's brain was smaller than a man's. She started the first institution in the United States to provide a full high school education for girls.
Deborah Sampson Gannett disguised as a man, served as a combat soldier in the Revolutionary War. George Washington gave her an honorable discharge after she was wounded and it was discovered that she was a woman.
1780'S ACTIVITIES:
The following collection of activities for the 1780's, as well as those for the 1880 to 1980's lend themselves to a varied selection of teaching techniques: group discussions (small and large group), brainstorming, creative dramatics, research, roleplaying, interviews, cartoon/television/movie analysis and problem solving. Group discussions also include the use of task groups, inquiry, and individual participation.
The students will be required to use many skills: creativity, idea generating, responsibility, leadership, listening, evaluating, questioning techniques, group learning processes, inquiry methods, analysis, synthesis, research, speaking, writing, dramatics, reasoning, drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, comparisons, illustrations, logic, induction, deduction, and judgment.
Compare the lives of women today with the lives of women in the 1780's. What can you conclude about their rights, education, working conditions, and relationships in a family. How is your life different? Which situation are you more accepting of? Why?
Choose a common law and make a poster relating your feeling of that law and how it affected women. Be able to show through your illustrations, the women of the era and their response to that law.
Distinguish between unpaid work (housework) and paid work (outside the home). How are the 1780's and the 1980's similar or different in that respect?
How might you explain the woman's place in the 1780's and now, reflecting the types of skills that they each have? What laws have helped to make those changes?
"All men are created equal." Do you agree that "all women and men are created equal" or are women and men different, in respect to the laws?
Legally speaking, "Women died on their wedding day." Verbalize how you would respond if it meant no voting, no owning of your own car, no home of your own to live in, and no money for you to spend of your own earnings. Your husband would be in complete control of all of the above.
Role-play a discussion between you and your mother, regarding your future. First of all, role-play in the year of 1780; then role-play in the 1980's. State the reasons why some choices wouldn't be available to you. In 1780, for instance, you couldn't attend college to become a doctor or a lawyer. In the 1980's, look at your choices for the future. College? Trade school? Travel? Work? Marriage? How do you feel about women today still not being able to enter into some fields, for example, women can't be Catholic priests?
Abigail and John Adams obviously had some conversations about the rights of women. How might things be different if John had listened to Abigail and made a push for women's rights during the writing of the Constitution? Write a short play about their relationship. Explain how their discussions could have altered our lives even today.
During the Revolutionary War, some women were soldiers. For what reasons would you favor or not favor women being soldiers in our day? Why should women/shouldn't women fight for our country? Are men still "taking care of women" Form a task group and discuss in small groups this issue.
One hour of glory in a life of heavy cleaning." React to that statement. State in your own words your feelings of women being raised only to cook, clean, and raise children.
"Girls need little knowledge to 'keep the pot boiling'." How do you perceive the need for education for all in the present day economic situation?
You are a woman who had helped to settle this new country, worked side by side with your husband on your farm, and enjoyed voting for school and town elections. How would you have reacted to fewer rights for women after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, when supposedly life would be greatly improved when we were our own separate country under our own laws?
For what reasons could you agree or disagree with Ben Franklin's quote about the amount of education needed by men and women?
What would happen if you were told that you were to be a slave for the rest of your life? You might have to work for someone else on a plantation cooking, cleaning, or working in the fields. You would more than likely be separated from your family. Describe your new situation. Would life be fair?
Research in depth one topic from the 1780's. Use the media center, public library, encyclopedias, etc. to gather your information. You may want to interview other peers or adults to get additional thoughts and opinions. Organize your data and be
able to talk about your area of expertise to your class.
1780'S CHILDREN'S BOOKS BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dagliesh, Alice. The Courage of Sarah Noble. New York: Scribner, 1954. (Ages 7-10). A girl travels into the wilderness in 1707 with her father. She lives with the neighboring Indians while her father returns for the rest of her family. She exhibits patience and adaptability. A classic.
Gauch, Patricia Lee. This Time, Tempe Wick? New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1974. (Ages 7-10). Temperance Wick, a bold, unselfish girl, defies rebellious American soldiers in order to protect her mother, house, and horse during the Revolutionary War.
Grant, Anne. Danbury's Burning. New York: McKay, 1976. (Ages 5-8). During Revolutionary times, Sybil Ludington rode through towns rousing them, and warning that the British were coming. This sixteen-year-old Connecticut counterpart of Paul Revere should become better known to students of history.
Harris, Janet. A Single Standard. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. (Ages 10 and up). Although this book contains a historical approach to the feminist movement, it stresses the sociological and psychological implications more than the history. The book relates to every aspect of women's lives.
Longsworth, Polly. I, Charlotte Forten, Black and Free. New York: Crowell, 1970. (Ages 10-12). Charlotte Forten serves as the narrator of this fictionalized autobiography. She meets and works against slavery with many famous people. The fight for women's rights is seen as parallel to and compatible with abolition.
Speare, Elizabeth George. The Witch of Blackbird Pond. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1958. Also in paper. (Age 12). Kit Tyler, orphaned as a young teenager, decides to leave her native island of Barbados to live with her maternal aunt. The role of the female in Colonial days, as well as the impact of politics and religion, is dramatically described in this book. Women are all individuals.
Turkle, Brinton. Rachel and Obadiah. New York: Dutton, 1978. Ages 5-8). Rachel and Obadiah are brother and sister. They live on Nantucket in the 1700's and are Quakers. Rachel has a good selfimage; she knows her brother is equal, even in those preliberation times.
1880'S BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
The existence of life on the mining frontier made women extraordinarily dependent on men for physical comfort and safety. The belief in feminine intellectual and physical weakness supported the assertion that women needed men's protection. Married men brought their wives with them, or sent for them. Single women had many chances to catch a husband. What women did, depended on their husband's social class. They were obliged to maintain the family dwelling. Dust, mud, and pollution from the mines and ore mills forced most wives into an endless cleaning battle. Preparing meals took a great deal of time in ill-equipped kitchens. Cruelty, which refers to physical abuse, was cited as the sole cause for divorce. Few husbands were arrested or punished for wife beating. How could they punish the offenders without penalizing the families? Fines and jail sentences usually imposed financial hardships on wives and children who depended on the head of the household. The burden of blame fell most heavily on the wives. How easy for women to get false sympathy!(12)
According to some Comstock Lode (a mining camp in Nevada) Antisuffragist, a good woman had all the political rights she desired because of the overwhelming moral influence she exerted on her husband. She was the presiding priestess of the home and if she was gifted and beautiful and womanly, her influence was immeasurable.(13) Women could vote on education and temperance issues.(14)
The west exerted a regressive rather than progressive influence on women's lives. They were virtually hired hands.(15) The movement west was a masculine enterprise, but later offered more for women.(16) The frontier reinforced the traditional roles of the sexes. Mill girls were likely to be potentially far more revolutionary than their rural western counterparts.(17) Yet despite arguments to the contrary, it did enlarge the scope of a woman's place.(18) By 1850, 17 state legal codes granted married women some provisions to purchase or homestead land and own and operate businesses in their own names.(19)
During the 1700's and 1800's, the Industrial Revolution brought great changes to the lives of people in this country. A shortage of men resulted in large numbers of women beginning to work, once again, outside the home. By the 1830's American textile mills were among the first factories to employ women. New machinery reserved some jobs for men, but machines were invented which allowed women to handle masculine jobs at a lower wage.
At first the labor shortage assured women of fairly good working conditions though they worked long hours and earned less than men. Large factories replaced small shops. More people left farming and sought factory work, and, as a result, working conditions became worse and wages dropped. Many women continued to work, even though many men quit, because they had little chance of finding other jobs. The pay was poor and the conditions were less than optimal.
Women's rights movement began to develop during the first half of the 1800's. Various groups debated a woman's role in business, education, the family, and political and social reform. In 1823 Catharine Beecher set up a seminary to train women as teachers. In 1835 Oberlin College became the first coeducational college in the United States even though women were offered a watered down literary course.(20) In 1841 they awarded their first degrees to women. Mary Lyon argued in 1837 that "Women should have more options than motherhood and teaching."(21)
In 1844, Margaret Fuller, in the forefront of the Women's rights movement, stated that "We should have every path laid open to woman as freely as to man' and "Men have the same feeling toward women as towards slaves." It was through the antislavery movement that American women assumed leadership roles in the women's rights movement.(22)
In 1848, two reformers, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton (who was resentful of the fact that women were considered inferior to men) called a woman's rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York. Delegates discussed the rights of women regarding divorce, guardianship of children, ownership and control of property and their own earnings, voting, higher education, and earning a living.
The New York legislature passed a bill in 1848 giving married women the right to own real estate in their own name. It also protected common law property rights of fathers who were worried
that sons-in-law would squander their daughter's inheritance. It was designed to protect, not liberate women.
In 1849, Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to practice medicine. During the next several decades, co-education developed rapidly in the United States. By 1860 many colleges were on a coed basis. But, it is one thing to expand and improve woman's education and another to open up the professions for them. As women gained more education and greater opportunities to work outside the home, they began to demand other rights as well.
In 1851, Sojourner Truth spoke at women's rights convention in Akron, Ohio. "The man over there says women need to be helped into carriages and lifted over ditches. Nobody helps me into carriages or over puddles, or gives me the best place?and ain't I a woman?"(23)
In 1855, Lucy Stone's marriage to Henry Blackwell was a protest against laws that gave the husband custody of the wife's person, exclusive control of children, sole ownership of land and personal things, and rights to her earnings. Lucy kept her own maiden name.
Sarah and Angela Grimke recognized the connection between the two causes--slavery and women's rights. During the Civil War, 1861-1865, most women reformers both the North and the South abandoned the movement and gave their full support to war activities.
In 1868-1870, the Fourteenth Amendment was passed. Male citizens over the age of 21 were guaranteed the right to vote. The Fifteenth Amendment said you could not be denied the right to vote because of race, color or previous condition of servitude (slavery). All men had the right to vote, but not any women. Thereafter, the women's rights movement directed most of its effort toward gaining suffrage. The main question was, "Are women persons?" The first woman to receive an accredited law degree in the United States was Ida H. Kepley in 1869. Common law had earlier prohibited women from being called to the bar. It was not until 1920 that all states gave women the same rights to practice law as men.
As far back as 1838, women in backwoods Kentucky could vote on school elections. In 1869. women were voting with equal basis with men in the frontier states of Wyoming, Utah, Colorado and Idaho. They had more power in practice than in principle, however.(24) A proposed constitutional amendment granting women the right to vote was introduced every session in Congress from 1878-1919.
Susan B. Anthony (1820-1906) felt women should have political power through the right to vote, economic power through job opportunities, and every legal right to property that men possessed.(25) One argument against suffrage was that it degraded respectable women and the ideal, refined, maternal wife was held up in contrast to suffrage shriekers. In 1872 Anthony and a group of women voted in a presidential election in Rochester, New York. They were arrested.
Carrie Chapman Catt believed that any approach used by the women's movements was politically good if it led women one step closer toward their goal of winning suffrage.
Alice Paul organized a parade in Washington, DC timed two days prior to Woodrow Wilson's presidential inauguration in 1912. Five thousand women marched down Pennsylvania Avenue. The parade
turned into a riot, but it drew attention to and spotlighted the suffrage cause. Letters and petitions to Congress came from all across the country demanding that the suffrage amendment be passed.
The Nineteenth amendment finally passed in 1920. Women had earned the right to vote.
1880'S ACTIVITIES:
Why did the westward movement attract women as well as men? Would you have been upset with what you found in the mining towns? Draw a mural for your classroom depicting the lifestyles of the western frontier.
Divide your classroom into four groups: one group to look into the city life of the well-to-do women; one group to look at the city life of the factory working women; one group to take a closer look at the women of the west in the mining town; and one group to look at the women of the West that eventually ended up working the farm land with their husbands. List the different characteristics of each way of life. Identify attitudes, work situations, and dreams of what the typical woman may have had. Contrast lives of these women with today's women. What conclusions can your group draw? What can you generalize concerning the needs and behaviors of the women of each era?
Analyze this statement: "Mill girls were likely to be potentially more revolutionary than their rural western counterparts." Why would this be so? Brainstorm reasons in small groups. Discuss as a class and further evaluate your conclusions.
When Oberlin College first became co-educational, women were offered a watered down literary course. Women had to serve the men and boys dinner at the college and only enter into conversations when asked. Compare life on a college campus today with the life at Oberlin in the 1830's.
"Women should have more options than motherhood and teaching," stated Mary Lyon. In small group discussion, give each group of six students, six minutes to qualify their group response to this statement.
Write your reaction to the following statement by Margaret Fuller in 1844. "We should have every path laid open to woman as freely as to man." What paths do you want to have open to you as you grow up and make choices in your own life? How are your choices different from the women of these earlier eras? How have changes in the law affected those changes? Be specific. What law and what changes has it made?
It has been said that comments about Susan B. Anthony, Anna E. Dickenson, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were more often directed at their unusual dress than their speeches and arguments about women's suffrage. Laws governing women's attire found women clothed in crinoline skirts and padded bustles. These often were so tight that they caused headaches, fainting, nausea, and sometimes damage to vital organs. Should there be more laws in today's society specifying proper attire for both men and women? Break into groups of six and in six minutes come up with a group response.
"Men have the same feeling toward women as they have toward slaves," sighed Margaret Fuller. Distinguish between the male and female responses toward the issue of slavery and the law.
Lucy Stone kept her own last name when she was married. Try to predict responses from your family members if you or your new spouse kept a maiden name after marriage. Try to predict responses from your family members if you or your new spouse kept a maiden name after marriage. Responses may refer to your mom, dad, grandfather, grandmother, brother, sister, and other family members.
Divide your students into small groups and work on the following task. Suppose your class cannot vote in student council elections because the principal said so. He gave no reasons or explanations. He gave you no time to question the decision. Develop a plan within your group about what you could do to change his mind. Carrie Chapman Catt believed that any approach could be used as long as women were one step closer to winning suffrage. Would you use violence or would you be peaceful? Why? How do people go about changing decisions?
1880'S CHILDREN'S BOOK BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Alcott, Louisa May. Little Women. Boston: Little, Brown, 1968. (All ages). Portraits of four sisters in a loving family, each with an individual personality and a different vision of her future life. A classic.
Blos, Joan. A Gathering of Days: A New England Girl's Journal. 1830-1832. New York: Scribner, 1979. (Ages 11-14).
Brink, Carol Ryrie. Caddie Woodlawn. New York: Macmillan, 1935. (Ages 9-12). A frontier story of the lively childhood adventures of Caddie and her brothers in the 1860's. Caddie's adventurous and active qualities are admired.
Burnett, Frances Hodgson. The Secret Garden. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1911. (Ages 9-12). A sensitive, assertive girl comes to live in a new place, discovers a secret garden, new friends, and how to care about others.
Burt, Olive. Black Women of Valor. New York: Juian Messner, 1974. (Ages 9-12). Tells the stories of four black women who demonstrated their courage and ability.
Sacajawea. New York: Franklin Watts, 1978. (Ages 9-12). Researches the life of the young Native American woman who guided the Lewis and Clark expedition into the Northwest Territory in the early part of the nineteenth century.
Fabor, Doris. Lucretia Mott: Foe to Slavery. Champaign, Illinois: Garrard, 1971. (Ages 8-2). The biography of a Quaker woman who spent her life fighting for suffrage and educational rights for women and blacks.
Foster, Jack. Adventures at Timberline. Monitor Publications Inc. Denver, Colorado, 1950. (All ages). Stories for children about the mining days of Colorado.
Friggens, Myriam. Tales, Trails and Tommyknockers. Johnson Books, Boulder Colorado, 1979. (All ages). Stories from Colorado's Past.
Heyn, Leah. Challenge to Become a Doctor: The Story of Elizabeth Blackwell. Old Westbury, New York: Feminist Press, 1971. (Ages 9-12). The biography of the struggle of a determined women to become a doctor despite the discrimination evident in the allmale profession.
Hurmence, Belinda. A Girl Called Boy. Clarion, Ticknor, and
Fields, 1982. (Ages 8-12). A black girl travels back in time to slavery in 1850.
Jacobs, William Jay. Mother, Aunt Susan, & Me: The First Fight for Women's Rights. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1979. (Ages 9-12). In an interesting format, the reader is introduced to Sojourner Truth, Susan B. Anthony, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the mother of the teenaged narrator of the story.
Meltzer, Milton. Tongue of Flame: The Life of Lydia Marie Child. New York: Crowell, 1965. (Ages 12 and up). A well written account of the life and times of Lydia Maria Child, who fought for such causes as abolition, women's rights, and rights of Native Americans.
1980'S BACKGROUND INFORMATION:
Discrimination based on sex is not yet unconstitutional in the United States. To this day, American women have not been included in the Constitution in a way that guarantees them equal protection under the law. The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was first introduced in 1923 through the efforts of the National Woman's Party. This amendment stated that men and women must be treated equally by law. Congress passed it in 1 972, but it needed to be ratified by two thirds of the state legislatures within seven years. Later the deadline was extended. When the deadline arrived in 1982, 35 of the 38 states had ratified the amendment. It would have made several state and local laws unconstitutional. Critics say that the Constitution already guaranteed equal rights. They felt the ERA would have required women to serve in the armed forces, for example. Supporters of the ERA say that despite the guarantees in the Constitution, women don't receive equal treatment.
The western experiences continued to influence western women's values long after the passing of the frontier. In 1943, a survey of women in the West (compared to women in the North and the South), were better educated, held a wider variety of jobs, were more likely to work outside the home, were less prone to traditional beliefs, were more excited and optimistic about their lives, were more open to change and more likely to approve equal standards for both men and women.(26)
The Civil Rights Act of 1957 insured the right of women to sit on federal juries. However, by 1962 twenty-one states still did not permit them to sit on lower level juries with men. By 1973, women could sit on juries in all fifty states. In the case of Taylor v. Louisiana (419 U.S. 522 (1975) the court ruled that excluding women from juries was unconstitutional. On August 30, 1981, there was an article in the Denver Post that said "More women work for the federal court system than men, a judicial report shows, but men outnumber women 18-1 where it means the most-- on the bench." Even today there are very few women judges.
Women's liberation groups work for strict enforcement of laws and regulations that promote women's equality. Most of these groups call for better child-care facilities that would free mothers for work outside the house. Many groups insist that the abbreviation, Ms., rather than Mrs. or Miss should be used before women's names. In the 1970's Gloria Steinem, editor of Ms. Magazine, turned to Ms. as a way of reaching the liberated women.(27) Liberated women believe there is no reason to have different titles for married and unmarried women. Some women's liberation groups believe that women will achieve equality only through basic changes in society. These groups say men should help with the housework and child-care to free women for work outside the
home. They believe such sharing of tasks would result in relationships between men and women based on mutual interests, respect, and affection rather than on men's economic and physical dominance.
"May the law automatically thrust my husband's name upon me when I say "I do"?" (28) In every state you are entitled to be known by any name you choose, as long as you do it consistently and don't do it for fraudulent purposes. Many states require you to indicate at the time you purchase a marriage license, whether you will keep your own name or take the last name of your husband. Some married couples decide to hyphenate their joint names. Title VII of the Civil Rights Act states that a woman is not required to use her husband's surname. Prior to the passing of this Civil Rights Act women could have been suspended from employment if they refused to use their husband's name. (29)
In 1963, Betty Friedan published the Feminine Mystique. In it she charged that American women were being consciously manipulated, encouraged by society to think of themselves primarily as wives and mothers rather than as people in their own right. Betty Friedan helped form the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966. She attacked society for having treated women as second class citizens.(30)
During World War II, all women did everything to help support the war effort. "Rosie the Riveter" was only the symbol for a whole army of women who found themselves employed as lumberjacks, welders, heavy crane operators, and taxi drivers.(31) In 1945 and 1948, there was a need for an Equal Federal Pay Act. After so many women had worked during the war, many were fired as the war ended. The 1950's brought women back home and many had children (the baby boom era) and were happy to be home. "The only right that many of them were concerned about was the right to be loved."(32) Fewer women were going into professions. In 1960, feminism was all but dead.(33) So much of the role of women seems to depend on the work force. When the men were not away at war, there seemed to be very few opportunities for women to work outside of the home.
What were some of the stereotypes about woman working outside of the home? 1) She will not be the breadwinner. 2) Her socioeconomic status will not depend on what she makes, but on her husband's salary. 3) Her career will only last for a short time (because of having children) so it is not worth investing time, money, and energy into training her. 4) A strong career may ruin her chance to marry. 5) She'll take the job away from a man.
As for women who did work outside the home, places of employment were refusing to hire them, refusing to promote them or give them seniority in the same situations where men would be entitled to it. Employers refused to pay women the same as men, gave only women the lowest paying shifts or the lowest paying factory or sales jobs, refused to admit qualified women into management training programs, and refused to let women have assignments that require travel. They would give women editors and writers most traditional subjects to write about such as fashion or society parties, or pregnancy.
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) stands out with the passage of time as one of the "great ladies." As the wife of President Franklin Roosevelt she was his ears and eyes to many issues focusing on migrant farm workers, shipyard workers, students, housewives, consumer affairs, women's organizations, unemployment and housing.(34)
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits most kinds of employment discrimination based on sex as well as on the basis of a person's color, race, national origin, or religion. An individual who is discriminated against by an employer can file a complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, (EEOC). The government may also cut financing for a program or agency that does not end discriminating policies or practices. Title VII has helped women throughout this country. However, the sex discrimination was tacked onto the amendment as an afterthought to racial discrimination. Eighty-one year old Howard W. Smith of Virginia proposed the addition of the word, sex, in hopes that it would help Title VII be laughed off the floor. He was a southerner and not against slavery. The uproar has become known as "Ladies Day" in the House. A maid can now be a man!!!(35)
The Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1975 prohibits banks, stores, and other organizations from discriminating on the basis of sex or marital status when making loans or granting credit. Since all credit was in the husband's name, divorced women and widows, after 20 or more years of marriage, were automatically denied credit when it was discovered that they had "no" credit history. Even those who were financially independent were considered poor credit risks. After all, there was always the chance they might quit their jobs to have babies or to care for young children.
Women have a right to credit in their own names without regard to their husband's income or credit. This act gives the woman with an income of her own the right to be deemed credit worthy based on her earnings, her history, and her paying of bills. It is the non-discriminatory right to give credit where credit is due. Cosigners can't be required. Each person is now evaluated on the type of job they have. Marital status can't be a factor to issue or not issue a credit card or charge account. No questions can be asked about children. In community property states you must have the other spouse's signature on the credit application."(36)
As of June 1, 1977, if both husband and wife are authorized, the application must be in both names. Prior to that, credit bureaus had no history that a married woman existed, let alone paid bills. A married woman may have handled all the household finance, budgeted all the family's needs, paid all the bills with her own or joint checking account and, in general, made sure all bills were paid on time; but all was attributed to her husband's credit because of all accounts being in his name. As long as they were married, there was no problem. But after divorce or death, the wife had no legal proof that she'd been responsible for paying a dime. No record existed of her ability to pay bills. All accounts were then closed.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 secured the same minimum wage and maximum hours for men and women, but the laws were not enforced. The word pay in the Equal Pay Act of 1963 has been interpreted by the courts as including all forms of payment such as vacation pay, holiday pay, overtime pay, and regular pay. The Equal Pay Act prohibits sex discrimination only as it applies to equal pay for equal work. It is applicable to nearly all private employers as well as federal, state, and local governments. Pension plans were set up as a retirement protection for families of men, not women. The gap of pay differences was wider than the take home pay. It involved benefits as well. In 1967, Congresswoman Martha Griffith dramatized the inequity by asking government men, who testified before her pension committee, "Why should I be paying to support your widow, when you aren't paying to support my husband?"(37)
Shirley Chisholm, as a candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1972, stated that being a woman had proved more of a handicap to her career progress than being black.(38)
Much as been gained through years of struggle and controversy. Still, traditional sexist attitudes and prejudices persist in our world today. There have been many laws that have restricted women in their various lifestyles throughout the years. In each era, it seems there are some women who have lived their lives the way they have chosen, regardless of the pressures of society. Let us hope we keep nurturing those elements of personal choice.
1980'S ACTIVITIES:
You are the first woman doctor, the first woman lawyer, the first woman teacher to go into space, or the first woman judge. What is so special about being the first one to accomplish a certain goal? What would you like to do "first."? Explain your scenario. Write a newspaper article about your accomplishments.
In the 1960's, the statement was made that the only right a woman needed was the right to be loved. Do you agree or disagree? Write a paragraph about your beliefs.
In a small group, brainstorm what part men can play, if any, in making women more free. Return to the large group and discuss your ideas.
Cut cartoons out of a newspaper. Write your own slogans under the pictures that might depict a change in a law that affects women, a quotation in our studies that comes to mind, or a topic concerning women's rights.
Women who have been involved in making political or social changes have often encountered opposition from other women. Enumerate the various reasons why this might happen. Using your research skills, site examples of specific incidences.
Who should do the housework? Who should take care of the children? Is it women's work? Should men be responsible? These are all issues in the 1980's. Break into small group discussions and draw conclusions on your group's opinions to share in large group discussion afterwards.
Historically, single women have been labeled Miss, married women labeled Mrs. and, men, either single or married are referred as Mr. As of the last 20 years, Ms. has been added so as not to specify married or single women. Do you feel this may/may not make a difference? Why?
Is it ever right to deny people choices in a Democratic society? Make a list of how you feel regarding our democratic rights.
Do you think a woman has to do much better than a man when working on a similar job or in a professional career, to receive equal recognition and/or promotions?
Do women need to make a choice between having a family and pursuing a career? Can they enjoy both? Does the marriage or the career suffer?
Write a theme on what you believe makes up the American dream. Should males and females be able to search for the same types of futures?
Should there be laws about such private matters as birth control and abortion? Should these issues be decided by the woman involved? Should the male in her life have a right to be a part of that decision? Does the woman have the sole right to make her decision and live with it?
What advancements, if any, are there for women when a country is at war? Use the information on the Civil War, World War I and World War II as a resource.
The Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1975 allows women to have credit in their own names. Write a story about a fictitious woman focusing on true facts concerning credit availability prior to 1975.
Through interviews, complete an oral history about a woman in the neighborhood, a grandmother, a woman in a nursing home or a woman from your church. While developing an understanding of the changes that can occur in a lifetime, collect information regarding women. Some suggested questions may be:
--What are your recollections of childhood?
--What do you remember about school? Clothes that you wore? Friends that you were close to?
--How did you pass your time? What hobbies or games did you play?
--What do you want people to remember about your life?
--Were there ever disappointments or frustrations that you felt were brought on because you were female?
--Were there times when you felt the laws restricted you because you were a woman?
--Do you remember when women earned the right to vote?
Compile your information and share it in small groups. See what similar kinds of information others may have come up with. Discuss the results. Draw a picture depicting a specific feeling or inspiration that you gained from this activity. Write a letter to the woman that you interviewed and share your results.
Identify goals you want to accomplish in your lifetime. What barriers do you see that could possibly keep you from reaching your goals? What positive situations could help you attain your goal?
Be aware of women's roles on television and in the movies. What women can you identify with? Whom would you see as your role model? What is there about her personality or life that you would like to duplicate?
1980'S CHILDREN'S BOOK BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, Florence. Mushy Eggs. New York: Putnam, 1973. (Ages 5-10). The women in this story are admirable and have several dimensions. The housekeeper-baby-sitter has her own friends and family, and the boys' mother copes well with her computer job and the boys.
Adoff, Arnold. I Am the Running Girl. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. (Ages 7-11). Book-length poem about a young woman who loves to run. Other women are shown joyously celebrating their abilities.
Ancona, George. And What Do You Do? New York: Dutton, 1976. (Ages 8-12). About the careers of twenty-one people, the book contains excellent photographs. The introduction states that although a woman or a man is shown doing a job, each job can be done by either.
Armstrong, Louise. How to Turn War into Peace. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. (Ages 5-8). A child's guide to resolving conflict and much more. A girl is given equal rights to anger, intelligence, pride, and the ability to resolve a problem by seeing reason.
Baker, Nina Brown. Nellie Bly, Reporter. New York: Henry Holt, 1956. (Ages 8-12). An interesting biography of a determined and intelligent woman. Contains telling commentary about early twentieth-century America.
Caines, Jeanette. Just Us Women. New York: Harper & Row, 1982. (Ages 5-9). Aunt Martha and the young narrator of the story are about to embark on a wonderful trip where the two of them will do just exactly as they please, and will have a marvelous time. Shows a sense of independence.
Carlson, Dale. Girls Are Equal Too: The Women's Movement for Teenagers. New York: Atheneum, 1973. (Ages 11-up). Raises strong issues and presents clear arguments reflecting the feminist position. Good sections on women's rights and job inequality and on the history of women's rights.
Clearly, Beverly. Ramona the Brave. New York: Scholastic, 1975. (Ages 8-12). Their mother has begun to work and the girls find themselves facing the problems of "latchkey" children.
Ramona the Pest. New York: Morrow, 1968. (Ages 8-11). Everyone calls curious, lively Ramona a "pest," but she has a different image of the typical little girl.
Gardner, Richard A. Dr. Gardner's Fairy Tales for Today's Children. Creative Therapeutics, 1978. (Ages 5-12). Fairy tales rely strongly on patterns and traditions. Typically, the hero is strong and brave the heroine is weak, passive and in need of rescuing. Look at these fairy tales and keep in mind who initiates the action.
George, Jean Craighead. Julie of the Wolves. New York: Harper & Row, 1972. (Ages 1 2-up). An Eskimo girl runs away from an unhappy situation. Living in the frozen wilderness, she courageously makes friends with the wolves and learns their ways. She must fact problems not only of individual survival but also of the changing ways of her people.
Goldreich, Gloria and Esther. What Can She Be? A Lawyer. New York: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1973. (Ages 7-12). Parts of the series devoted to describing women in professions formerly considered to be for men only.
Klein, Norma. Mom, the Wolf Man and Me. New York: Pantheon, 1972. (Ages 10-up). Brett and her mother are females who do not conform to a stereotype.
Kolbenschlag, Madonna. Kiss Sleeping Beauty Good-bye. New York: Doubleday, 1979. Basing her comments on the problems and personalities of Sleeping Beauty, Goldilocks, Cinderella, Snow White?-the author examines their characteristics and interactions and relates them to today's society.
Larrick, Nancy and Merriam, Eve, eds. Male and Female Under 18. New York: Avon, 1973. (Ages 8-up). Comments and poems contributed by girls and boys, ages 8 to 18, reflecting how they feel about their sex roles.
Lord, Athena V. A Spirit to Ride the Whirlwind. MacMillan, 1981. (Ages 12-up). Set in Lowell, Massachusetts in 1936 during the strike of women workers. Excellent piece of fiction to teach the history of that period.
Maclachlan, Patricia. Arthur, For the Very First Time. New York: Harper & Row, 1980. (Ages 9-12). Arthur, a ten-year-old boy who has always been an observer and a writer, dreads the approaching arrival of a new sibling.
Ness, Evaline, compiler and illustrator. Amelia Mixed the Mustard and Other Poems. New York: Scribner, 1975. (All ages). A collection of poems dedicated to all females. Each one of the poems has a heroine at its center.
O'Dell, Scott. Island of the Blue Dolphins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1960. (Ages 10-up). Karana, a young Native American girl, is alone on her home island after her people have left. She manages her own survival.
Peavy, Lina, and Smith, Ursula. Women Who Changed Things. New York: Scribner, 1983. (Ages 12-up). Well written accounts of nine women who are not very well known, but who, by their talent, determination, and intelligence were able to make a difference in the world.
Seed, Suzanne. Saturday's Child -- Thirty-Six Women Talk About Their Jobs. Chicago: J. Phillip O'Hara, 1973. (Ages 11-up). Thirty-six women who have had successful careers in architecture, theatre, law, carpentry and so on, talk about their training, how they chose their job, and how their jobs affect their families.
Warren, Ruth. A Pictorial History of Women in America. New York: Crown, 1975. (Ages 10-up). A useful overview of the role of women in America's development.
CONCLUSION: Many activities, classroom discussions, role plays, and enjoyable hours of independent reading can be accomplished after browsing over the children's bibliography at the end of each section. Here is just a sample of ideas that may be incorporated into the classroom and the three children's bibliographies.
Fairy tales rely strongly on patterns and traditions. Discuss the typical hero who is strong, brave, male, and in complete control. The heroine is usually weak, demure, passive, in need of being rescued, obedient, and usually ends up with the greatest reward of all--to be a bride and live happily ever-after. Who initiates the action? Write your own fairy tales where the women have more assertive roles. Be sure to have a copy of Richard Gardner's Fairy Tales for Today's Children available.
Many of the books listed are classics and have withstood the test of time. They have universal appeal and are products and reflections of their times and should be thought of in that light. Examine the expectations of males and females with the historic time frame that the classics portray.
Change the characters in the book, rearrange the story accordingly, and analyze those changes.
Have the children match their parents and family with various characters that are found in these books. What can they learn about themselves and about dealing with real-life situations that may occur?
Have the students discuss the ideal parents that may be found in children's books. What are the ideal characteristics that they admire?
Observe the people's relationships in the story. Were there any unusual characters? What historical topics may have come up regarding women?
Notice especially the female characters. Were they assertive? Did they have a sense of adventure? Did they show strong emotions? Did they have a sense of the various options available to them?
EVALUATION:
Did some students who are usually quiet participate openly in the activities?
Did the situation that prompted the discussions seem to be better understood by the participants after the process was completed?
Did the role players take their roles seriously? Did they portray life-like situations?
How well did the students discuss the information that was being covered? Were they actively participating?
Were the students able to answer various kinds of questions? Did the students learn to ask different levels of questions?
How well did they solve problems within their task group? Were the students able to stay on task and deal with the assignment?
Ask students to each choose a favorite woman that was studied. Draw a picture of this woman or what she represents to the student. Next to, or included in, the drawing make references to the important things that were learned about her and her accomplishments. Include the reasons why she was chosen. Do not put her name on the paper. Later, when everyone has finished his/her art work, exchange papers and see if the other students can identify the woman by the information that has been displayed. This would be a valuable learning tool, as well as an evaluation technique.
Evaluate the usefulness of some laws concerning woman and why laws are necessary. Impress upon the students that laws change when attitudes change. Have a group of students do a creative dramatics presentation showing the importance of laws. What would the world be like if there were no laws?
As a language arts writing assignment have the students evaluate the unit themselves. Use these questions as a guideline:
--What did I learn about women, history, laws and the growth of our country? --Did I enjoy this unit? Why or why not?
--What things, if any did I feel were unfair?
--What laws or attitudes towards women upset me?
--What laws gave a positive feeling towards women and their lives? --In what ways will this unit of study help me, as a woman, or as a male living with women?
--What have I learned about decision-making and choices?
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES ADULT BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Alexander, Shana. Women's Legal Rights. Wollstonecraft. 1975.
Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968.
Cohen, Martha. Stop Sex Roles in Elementary Education. A handbook for Parents and Teachers. Hartford, 1974. Suggestions for helping children deal with stereotyping.
Cott, Nancy F. Root of Bitterness. Documents of Social History of American Women. New York: Dutton, 1972. Social History of women in the Colonial period--20th century.
Ellis, Anne. The Life of an Ordinary Woman. University of Nebraska Press, 1980.
George, Carol V.R. Remember the Ladies. New Perspectives on Women in America 1600-1800's--Syracuse, NY, 1975.
Goldman, Marion S. Gold Diggers and Silver Miners. Prostitution and Social Life on the Comstock Lode. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1981.
Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co., Inc., 1976.
Kanowitz, Leo. Women and the Law: The Unfinished Revolution. Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press, 1969.
Kraditor, Aileen S. The Ideals of the Woman's Suffrage Movement, 1880-1920. Norton, 1981.
Lynch, Jane Shay and Smith, Sara Lyn. The Women's Guide to Legal Rights. Contemporary Books Inc. Chicago, 1979.
Myers, Sandra L. Westering Women and the Frontier Experience, 1800-1915. University of New Mexico, 1982.
Orlich, Donald C. et. al. Teaching Strategies. A Guide to Better Instruction. Lexington, Mass. D.C. Heath & Co., 1985.
Rudman, Masha K. Children's Literature: An Issues Filmstrips Approach. 1984, Longman, Inc.
Sachs, Albie. Sexism and the Law. Joan Hoff Wilson. Free Press 1978.
Wortma, Marlene Stein. Women in American Law. New York, Holmes and Meier, 1985. vol. I colonial times to New Deal. vol. II from New Deal to present.
Videos
Woman in American History. Women's struggles for justice and equality and their contributions to American life through memorable vignettes from the lives of outstanding women and excerpts from speeches and writings; vividly reveals discrimination in law, politics, religion, education, and work.
Part 1: The Colonies: Daily life, Anne Hutchinson, Salem witch trials, Margaret Brent, Revolutionary activities, Abigail Adams.
Part 2: Crisis of Identity: Conflicts; discrimination in education, employment practices, law, media; Eleanor Roosevelt,
Betty Friedan, Shirley Chisholm.
Part 3: After the Revolution: Pioneer hardships, the industrial revolution, the factory woman, the plight of the slavewoman, southern life.
Part 4: Slavery and Suffrage: Abolition activities leads to feminism, the first woman's right convention, Susan B. Anthony, Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Civil War, the struggle for the vote.
Part 5: The Artist: Dorothea Lange, Martha Graham, Louise Nevelsom, Buffy St. Marie, Gwendolyn Brooks.
Part 6: Reformers: Immigrants, city life, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, Jane Addams Hull House, sweatshops, the Women's Trade Union League formed, Mother Jones organizes mine workers.
By Doreen Rappaport and Susan Kempler, available through Educational Activities, Inc., Freeport, New York 11520
Filmstrips
Heroes and Heroines of the Great West -1976
New Horizons for Women -1975
Notable Women of the United States -1978 National Geographic
Movies
American Parade: We The Women--1974. Narrated by Mary Tyler Moore, the film dramatically traces the history of the women's movement from colonial times to the early 70's.
The American Woman: Portraits of Courage--1976. Highlights the careers of 10 American women who fought to establish, preserve and expand America's liberties from the Revolutionary times.
Anything You Want To Be--1971. A high school girl is trying to make her own decisions and is torn between her own ideas and those of her parents, teachers, counselors, and society in general.
Deal Me In--1978. Provides women with role models for finding rewarding careers in skilled trades.
The Eleanor Roosevelt Story--1965. A remarkably penetrating and moving documentary of the woman who has been called the "spokeswoman" for the conscience of the world.
The Fable of He and She--1974. Poking fun at traditional male and female roles.
Free To Be--You and Me--1973. Marlo Thomas and friends sing and dance their way through four acts exploring the stereotyped expectations of society.
Helen Keller and Her Teacher--1970. The persistence and determination needed to make Helen a person are admirably portrayed.
Jade Snow Wong--1976. As a fifth daughter of a traditional Chinese family living in San Francisco during the 20's, Jade had two tasks--study hard and respect her father.
Lucy Covington--1978. As an active Indian leader and spokeswoman, she tells the story of her people.
Take This Woman--1971. The study of the need for equal employment opportunities.
We, The Women--1974. Traces the American women's movement from 1608 when a wife could be purchased for 120 pounds of tobacco to the present.
Whole New Ballgame--1973. Adolescence is a trying and confusing time, especially when children begin to redefine their roles.
A Woman's Place--1977. Documents the many American women whose courage and daring helped to change the concept "a woman's place is in the home" to "a woman's place is anyplace".
Never Give Up--Imogene Cunningham--1975. The charismatic Imogene talks about her career as a portrait photographer.
Women's Rights--1974. A high school girl wants to swim on the boys' team, but there are state laws which prohibit this.
One Fine Day. Sixty black and white still pictures of 19th and 20th century women in this country.
Other Women Other Work--1973. A number of women who are working in traditionally male fields are shown.
Pictures Out of My Life--1973. This film is based on an Eskimo woman's self-illustrated autobiography.
Sewing Woman--1983. A universal story about one woman's determination to survive.
Some Will Be Apples--1974. Examines the lifestyles, feelings, expectations of mid-western pre-suffrage women.
Women's Rights in the Labor Force. Did protective legislation help or hinder women's progress in the labor force between 1850 and the present?
FOOTNOTES
(1) Bird, Carolina. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 16.
(2) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 27.
(3) Sachs, Albie. Sexism and the Law. Joan Hoff Wilson. Free Press 1978, p. 71.
(4) Ibid, p. 71.
(5) Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 23.
(6) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976.
(7) Sachs, Albie. Sexism and the Law. Joan Hoff Wilson. Free Press, 1978, p. 71.
(8) Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 23.
(9) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 11.
(10) Ibid, p. 16.
(11) Ibid, p. 18.
(12) Goldman, Marion S. Gold Diggers and Silver Miners. Prostitution and Social Life on the Comstock Lode. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1981.
(13) (Territorial Enterprise, August 11, 1877)
(14) (Territorial Enterprise, May 21, 1880--the most influential newspaper on the lode in Virginia City).
(15) Myers, Sandra L. Westering Women and the Frontier Experience, 1800-1915. University of New Mexico, 1982, p. 238.
(16) Lillian Schlissel, "Women's Diaries on the Western Frontier," American Studies ,18, Spring 1977, p. 94.
(17) Robert V. Hine, The American West: Interpretive History-Boston 1974, p. 174.
(18) Sandra L. Myers. Westering Women and the Frontier Experiences, 1800-1915, University of New Mexico 1982, p. 240.
(19) Ibid, p. 258.
(20) Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 22.
(21) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 22.
(22) Alexander, Shana. Women's Legal Rights. Wollstonecraft. 1975, p. 34.
(23) Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 25.
(24) Ibid, p. 17.
(25) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 48.
(26) "Was the West Different? Values and Attitudes of Young Women in 1943?" Pacific Historical Review 47, August 1978.
(27) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 270.
(28) Alexander, Shana. Women's Legal Rights. Wollstonecraft. 1975, p. 10.
(29) Ibid, p. 15.
(30) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 263.
(31) Ibid, p. 255.
(32) Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 35.
(33) Ibid, p. 36.
(34) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino,
California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 252.
(35) Bird, Caroline. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 31.
(36) Alexander, Shana. Women's Legal Rights. Wollstonecraft. 1975, p. 194.
(37) Bird, Carolina. Born Female. David McKay Company, Inc. 1968, p. 65.
(38) Jacobs, William Jay. Women in American History. Encino, California, Glencoe Publishing Co. Inc., 1976, p. 268.